Salif Keita, the Golden Voice of Africa

Salif Keita struggled to balance many tensions throughout his musical journey, including state sponsorship of music, caste identity, and appearance. His albinism led to social exclusion throughout his life. His noble caste made singing, especially singing songs of praise, fasa, an unacceptable career for him. Yet he fearlessly pursued a career in music and became known as the "Golden Voice of Africa."

During the period after Mali’s independence in 1960, the state exercised a large degree of control over Malian music. The state sponsored musical groups, individual artists, and venues. There was a national orchestra, a national radio, and even state-sponsored discotheques.  Through this system, the government exerted a large degree of control over music. 

Salif Keita gained the government’s support, which allowed him to rise in prominence. His music was played on the radio and as he became more popular, military and state officials and merchants began to give him gifts. But being sponsored by the government meant that he was limited in the kind of music he could produce; the government tended to encourage traditional songs and songs that extolled the new nation. Salif could not express himself fully while he had this relationship with the state. One artist, Sorry Bamba, expressed that the Malian artist “is like a straw that the people in power blow around as they wish” (Outcast to Ambassador, p. 63). 

On the other hand, government support was important to Salif’s career. Salif lacked acceptance and legitimacy for many reasons; people rejected him on the basis of his physical appearance and his social caste. So while other artists leaned on the state for economic support, Salif also depended on the government to legitimize his role as an artist.

 Salif continued to find his artistic identity as he moved around the world. In 1978, Salif and his colleague, Kanté Manfila, moved to the Côte d’Ivoire. In this urban setting, Salif had to win over people without state support. As part of the group Les Ambassaeurs Internationaux, Salif sang praise songs, or fasas, and blended modern and traditional styles.

 The fasa genre consists of songs of praise that celebrate a family’s heroic heritage. These songs traditionally highlighted important moral values and people who exemplified those values. However, fasa can also “be used as an instrument to give legitimacy to wealthy and self-seeking politicians” (Outcasts, p. 79). Seeking financial and moral support, artists often used the fasa for personal gain. The use of the fasa for self-serving purposes by artists has stripped the legitimacy of griots. These songs are especially dishonest when singers claim to celebrate a family’s legacy without truly knowing the family background. In this way, praise singing can “breed artistic dishonesty” (Outcasts, p. 80). Salif engaged in the practice of praise singing, which was seen as unaccepted for two reasons. First, nobles were not supposed to sing praise; nobles were supposed to be the subjects of these songs only. Second, Salif dedicated a praise song to President Ahmed Sekou Touré of the Republic of Guinea in West Africa. Touré had failed in many ways as a leader and had committed crimes against humanity. By dedicating a praise song to Touré, Salif put his artistic integrity on the line. The author, Cheick Mahamadou Chérif Keïta, explains that Salif likely felt a gratitude to Touré. This man had not only promoted African culture and music, but he had also helped Salif overcome the stigmas and rejections he faced.

 Salif’s musical journey is also embodied in his aesthetic dress decisions. In 1984, Salif left Africa for France, where he was more free to express himself. He adopted the clothing of the donso sero, or the hunter-bard. This choice of clothing at first seems perplexing; the hunter-bard’s clothing is known for being intentionally unattractive. Many other African artists selected the brightest and most colorful clothing from their countries to attract an international audience. Salif Keita opted for the hunter-bard’s dark red clothing, complete with horns, hair, mirrors, and amulets. This clothing seemed like a strange decision, but in fact it represented Salif truly owning his identity and using it to his advantage. First, by dressing as a hunter-bard, Salif distanced himself from his caste, and from the idea that legitimacy can come only from hereditary caste. Second, Salif’s dress rejected Mande’s bias towards external appearance and physical beauty. In Mande culture, the hunter-bard is often considered to be the voice of the invisible and the “announcer of hidden things.” For hunter-bard, physical “imperfections” are actually a positive attribute, as they can signify special protection. In this way, Salif used dress to transform his physical appearance from a stigma to something that held positive meaning.

Salif's life journey reveals important insights about identity and music in Mali during this time period.